Prior to the construction of Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Jakarta was served by two airports: Kemayoran Airport, which functioned as the city's main commercial passenger airport, and Halim Perdanakusuma Airport, which served as a base for the Indonesian Air Force and handled non-scheduled passenger flights. By the late 1960s, Kemayoran Airport, Jakarta's first airport and the city's primary gateway since the Dutch colonial era, was increasingly regarded as inadequate for future expansion. Its close proximity to Halim Perdanakusuma Airport, combined with its location in the heart of the city amid densely populated residential areas, severely limited opportunities for further development. Civilian airspace around Jakarta also became increasingly restricted, while air traffic grew rapidly, creating mounting challenges for international aviation operations. As a result, the airport began suffering from chronic overcapacity due to the lack of available space for expansion. These concerns were formally raised during a senior communications officers’ meeting in Bangkok in 1969. In the early 1970s, with assistance from USAID, eight potential sites for a new international airport were evaluated: Kemayoran, Malaka, Babakan, Jonggol, Halim, Curug, South Tangerang, and North Tangerang. Ultimately, the North Tangerang site was selected, while Jonggol was identified as a possible alternative airfield for future use. As an interim measure, the Indonesian government upgraded Halim Perdanakusuma Airport in 1974 to accommodate international passenger services. Kemayoran Airport was eventually closed in 1985, and the former airport site was later redeveloped for commercial and residential purposes. Between 1974 and 1975, a Canadian consortium, consisting of Aviation Planning Services Ltd., ACRESS International Ltd., and Searle Wilbee Rowland (SWR), won a bid for the new airport feasibility project. The feasibility study started on 20 February 1974, costing 1 million Canadian dollars. The one-year project proceeded with an Indonesian partner represented by PT Konavi. By the end of March 1975, the study revealed a plan to build three inline runways, three international terminal buildings, three domestic buildings, and one for Hajj flights. Three stores for the domestic terminals would be built between 1975 and 1981 at a cost of US$465 million and one domestic terminals including an apron from 1982 to 1985 for US$126 million. A new terminal project, named the Jakarta International Airport Cengkareng, began. On 20 May 1980, a four-year contract was signed. Sainraptet Brice, SAE, Colas together with PT. Waskita Karya was chosen to be the developer. Ir. Karno Barkah was appointed the project director, responsible for the airport's construction. Construction of the airport was carried out in two phases: Phase I (1975–1980) and Phase II (1980–1985). The first passenger terminal was completed in 1980. Soekarno–Hatta International Airport commenced domestic operations on 1 May 1985, replacing the overcrowded Kemayoran Airport, and was officially inaugurated by then-President Soeharto. The airport was expanded in 1991 with the construction of a new international terminal and a second runway, enabling it to take over international operations from Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport. Halim subsequently continued serving domestic, charter, VIP, and private flights, before later reopening as a secondary commercial airport in 2014 for domestic services to help relieve congestion at Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, which has been operating beyond its intended capacity. Terminals 1 and 2 of Soekarno–Hatta International Airport were designed by French architect Paul Andreu, who also designed Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport. One of the airport's defining features is the incorporation of local Indonesian architectural elements into its design, complemented by tropical gardens situated between the waiting lounges.